Sandra Carvalho is an Associate Professor with Habilitation at the Department of Basic Psychology at the University of Minho. She is also a member of the European Network of Adult ADHD Experts and serves as a scientific project evaluator for the European Commission under the Horizon Europe and COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) programmes.
From 2021 to 2024, she was Assistant Professor of Neuropsychology at the University of Aveiro, where she also served as Director of the Psychology programme, founded and coordinated the Laboratory of Translational Neuropsychology, and was a member of the Executive Board of the Department of Education and Psychology.
She holds a degree and specialization in Clinical Psychology, a PhD in Psychology from the University of Minho, and a Habilitation in Psychology from the University of Aveiro. Her doctoral research focused on the psychophysiological correlates of emotional processing.
Following her PhD, she completed a three-year postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard Medical School, where she expanded her expertise in both basic and clinical neuroscience, with a particular emphasis on clinical trials and research methodologies. She also obtained international certifications in non-invasive brain stimulation techniques through specialized training at University College London, the University of Göttingen, and Harvard Medical School.
With more than 19 years of combined experience in clinical practice and research, she has led and collaborated on several clinical trials in the field of neurorehabilitation, targeting conditions such as neuropathic pain, obsessive-compulsive disorders, treatment-resistant depression, Tourette’s syndrome, and neurological recovery after stroke or traumatic brain injury. She is also certified in research ethics and integrity by the Harvard School of Public Health.
Sandra Carvalho is Associate Editor of six international scientific journals and serves on the advisory board of the International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology (Elsevier). Since 2014, she has received intensive training in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Hoarding Disorder through the International OCD Foundation.
Throughout her career, she has published more than 80 scientific articles and book chapters in leading international journals and publishers. She has served as Principal Investigator on projects funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and has been a core team member in projects supported by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH).
Translational Neuroscience
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Neurorehabilitation
Neuroplasticity
Randomized Clinical Trials
Neuromodulation (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation)
Biomarkers
Selected publications
Carvalho, S., Boggio, Paulo S., Gonçalves, Óscar F., Fregni, F., Vigário, Ana R., Faria, M., Silva, S., Rêgo, Gabriel G., Leite, J. (2015). The effects of metaplasticity on working memory by transcranial direct current stimulation. Brain Stimulation. 8(2):289-94.
DOI
Fregni, F., El-Hagrassy, M. M., Pacheco-Barrios, K., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Simis, M., Brunelin, J., Nakamura-Palacios, E. M., Marangolo, P., Venkatasubramanian, G., San-Juan, D., Caumo, W., Bikson, M., Brunoni, A. R., & Neuromodulation Center Working Group (2021). Evidence-Based Guidelines and Secondary Meta-Analysis for the Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology, 24(4), 256–313. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyaa051 DOI
Brunoni, A. R., Ekhtiari, H., Antal, A., Auvichayapat, P., Baeken, C., Benseñor, I. M., Bikson, M., Boggio, P., Borroni, B., Brighina, F., Brunelin, J., Carvalho, S., Caumo, W., Ciechanski, P., Charvet, L., Clark, V. P., Cohen Kadosh, R., Cotelli, M., Datta, A., Deng, Z. D., … Fregni, F. (2022). Digitalized transcranial electrical stimulation: A consensus statement. Clinical neurophysiology : official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology, 143, 154–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2022.08.018 DOI
Carvalho, S., Goncalves, O. F., Soares, J. M., Sampaio, A., Fregni, F., Macedo, F., Leite, J. (2015). Sustained effects of neuro-based intervention in a refractory case of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Brain stimulation. 8(3):657-9. DOI
Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Galdo-Alvarez, S., Gonçalves Ó.F. (2012). The emotional movie database (EMDB): A self-report and psychophysiological normative study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.37, 279-294.
DOI
Fregni F., Nitsche M.A., Loo C., Brunoni A.R., Marangolo P., Leite J., Carvalho S., Bolognini, N., Caumo W., Paik N.J., Simis M, Ueda K., Hamed E., Luu P., Tucker D.M., Tyler W.J., Brunelin J., Datta A., Juan C.H., Venkatasubramaniam G., Boggio P.S., Bikson M. (2015). Regulatory Considerations for the Clinical and Research Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): review and recommendations from an expert panel. Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs. 32(1):22-35. DOI
Leite J., Gonçalves Ó.F., Carvalho, S. (2014). Facilitative effects of bi-hemispheric tDCS in cognitive deficits of Parkinson Disease patients. Medical Hypotheses. 83(2),138-140.
DOI
Leite J, Carvalho S, Fregni F, Boggio P.S., Gonçalves Ó.F. (2013). The effects of bihemispheric dorsolateral prefrontal-cortex transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) on task switching. Brain Stimulation. 6(4):660-7. DOI
Mendes, A. J., Pacheco-Barrios, K., Lema, A., Gonçalves, Ó. F., Fregni, F., Leite, J., & Carvalho, S. (2022). Modulation of the cognitive event-related potential P3 by transcranial direct current stimulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 132, 894–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.002 DOI
Leite J*, Carvalho S*, Galdo-Alvarez, S., Alves, J., Sampaio, A., Gonçalves Ó.F (2012). Affective picture modulation: valence, arousal, attention allocation and motivational significance. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 83(3):375-81. *Equal contributors DOI
Leite J., Carvalho S., Fregni F, Gonçalves Ó.F. (2011). Task-Specific Effects of tDCS-Induced Cortical Excitability Changes on Cognitive and Motor Sequence Set Shifting Performance. PLoS ONE 6(9): e24140. DOI
Irwin, C. L., Coelho, P. S., Kluwe-Schiavon, B., Silva-Fernandes, A., Gonçalves, Ó. F., Leite, J., & Carvalho, S. (2023). Non-pharmacological treatment-related changes of molecular biomarkers in major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of clinical and health psychology : IJCHP, 23(3), 100367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100367 DOI
Other publications
Carvalho, S., Boggio, Paulo S., Gonçalves, Óscar F., Fregni, F., Vigário, Ana R., Faria, M., Silva, S., Rêgo, Gabriel G., Leite, J. (2015). The effects of metaplasticity on working memory by transcranial direct current stimulation. Brain Stimulation. 8(2):289-94.
DOI
Fregni, F., El-Hagrassy, M. M., Pacheco-Barrios, K., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Simis, M., Brunelin, J., Nakamura-Palacios, E. M., Marangolo, P., Venkatasubramanian, G., San-Juan, D., Caumo, W., Bikson, M., Brunoni, A. R., & Neuromodulation Center Working Group (2021). Evidence-Based Guidelines and Secondary Meta-Analysis for the Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders. The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology, 24(4), 256–313. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijnp/pyaa051 DOI
Brunoni, A. R., Ekhtiari, H., Antal, A., Auvichayapat, P., Baeken, C., Benseñor, I. M., Bikson, M., Boggio, P., Borroni, B., Brighina, F., Brunelin, J., Carvalho, S., Caumo, W., Ciechanski, P., Charvet, L., Clark, V. P., Cohen Kadosh, R., Cotelli, M., Datta, A., Deng, Z. D., … Fregni, F. (2022). Digitalized transcranial electrical stimulation: A consensus statement. Clinical neurophysiology : official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology, 143, 154–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2022.08.018 DOI
Carvalho, S., Goncalves, O. F., Soares, J. M., Sampaio, A., Fregni, F., Macedo, F., Leite, J. (2015). Sustained effects of neuro-based intervention in a refractory case of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Brain stimulation. 8(3):657-9. DOI
Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Galdo-Alvarez, S., Gonçalves Ó.F. (2012). The emotional movie database (EMDB): A self-report and psychophysiological normative study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.37, 279-294.
DOI
Fregni F., Nitsche M.A., Loo C., Brunoni A.R., Marangolo P., Leite J., Carvalho S., Bolognini, N., Caumo W., Paik N.J., Simis M, Ueda K., Hamed E., Luu P., Tucker D.M., Tyler W.J., Brunelin J., Datta A., Juan C.H., Venkatasubramaniam G., Boggio P.S., Bikson M. (2015). Regulatory Considerations for the Clinical and Research Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): review and recommendations from an expert panel. Clinical Research and Regulatory Affairs. 32(1):22-35. DOI
Leite J., Gonçalves Ó.F., Carvalho, S. (2014). Facilitative effects of bi-hemispheric tDCS in cognitive deficits of Parkinson Disease patients. Medical Hypotheses. 83(2),138-140.
DOI
Leite J, Carvalho S, Fregni F, Boggio P.S., Gonçalves Ó.F. (2013). The effects of bihemispheric dorsolateral prefrontal-cortex transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) on task switching. Brain Stimulation. 6(4):660-7. DOI
Mendes, A. J., Pacheco-Barrios, K., Lema, A., Gonçalves, Ó. F., Fregni, F., Leite, J., & Carvalho, S. (2022). Modulation of the cognitive event-related potential P3 by transcranial direct current stimulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 132, 894–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.002 DOI
Leite J*, Carvalho S*, Galdo-Alvarez, S., Alves, J., Sampaio, A., Gonçalves Ó.F (2012). Affective picture modulation: valence, arousal, attention allocation and motivational significance. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 83(3):375-81. *Equal contributors DOI
Leite J., Carvalho S., Fregni F, Gonçalves Ó.F. (2011). Task-Specific Effects of tDCS-Induced Cortical Excitability Changes on Cognitive and Motor Sequence Set Shifting Performance. PLoS ONE 6(9): e24140. DOI
Irwin, C. L., Coelho, P. S., Kluwe-Schiavon, B., Silva-Fernandes, A., Gonçalves, Ó. F., Leite, J., & Carvalho, S. (2023). Non-pharmacological treatment-related changes of molecular biomarkers in major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of clinical and health psychology : IJCHP, 23(3), 100367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2023.100367 DOI
Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Galdo-Alvarez, S., Gonçalves Ó.F. (2011). Psychophysiological correlates of sexually and non-sexually motivated attention to film clips in a workload task. PLoS ONE 6(12): e29530.
DOI
Gonçalves, Ó.F., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Pocinho, F., Relvas, J., Fregni, F. (2011). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder as a functional interhemispheric imbalance at the thalamic level. Medical Hypotheses 77(3), 445-447. DOI
Yavari, F., Shahbabaie, A., Leite, J., Carvalho, S., Ekhtiari, H., Fregni, F. (2016). Noninvasive Brain Stimulation for Addiction Medicine: From Monitoring to Modulation. Progress in Brain Research: Neuroscience for Addiction Medicine: From Prevention to Rehabilitation. 224:371-99. DOI
Morales-Quezada, L., Cosmo, C., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Castillo, L., Rozizky, J. R., Fregni, F. (2015). Cognitive effects and autonomic responses to transcranial pulsed current stimulation. Experimental Brain Research. 233(3):701-9.
DOI
Goncalves O.F., Sousa S., Maia L., Carvalho, S., Leite J., Ganho A., Fernandes-Goncalves A., Frank B., Pocinho F., Carracedo A., Sampaio A (2015). Inferior Frontal Gyrus White Matter Abnormalities in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Neuroreport. 26 (9), 495-500. DOI
Rêgo, G G. Lapenta, Olívia M., Marques, Lucas M., Cost, Thiago L., Leite, J., Carvalho, S., Gonçalves, Óscar F., Brunoni, André R., Fregni, Felipe, Boggio, Paulo S (2015). Hemispheric Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Lateralization in the Regulation of Empathy for Pain. Neuroscience Letters. 594, 12-16.
DOI
Gonçalves Ó.F, Soares J.M., Carvalho S., Leite J., Ganho A., Fernandes-Gonçalves A, Frank, B. BS, Pocinho F, Relvas J, Carracedo A, & Sampaio A (2014). Brain activation of the defensive and appetitive survival systems in obsessive compulsive disorder. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9(2), 255-63. DOI
Marcondes, B. F., Sreepathi, S., Markowski, J., Nguyen, D., Stock, S. R., Carvalho, S., Tate, D., Zafonte, R., Morse, L., Fregni, F. (2016). Pain Severity and Mobility One Year After Spinal Cord Injury: A Multicenter, Cross-Sectional Study. European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine. 52(5):630-636.
DOI
Chanes, L., Doruk, D., Malavera, A., Leite, J., Carvalho, S., Jacobs, D., Chodosh, J., Melki, S., Valero-Cabré,A., Merabet, L. B., Fregni, F. (2015). Assessing potential neurophysiological signatures of chronic corneal pain and its modulation through non-invasive brain stimulation: A commentary. Principles and Practice of Clinical Research Journal. 1(2):52-55. DOI
Morales-Quezada, L., Leite J., Carvalho, S., Castillo-Saavedra, L., Cosmo, C., Fregni, F. (2016). Behavioral effects of transcranial pulsed current stimulation (tPCS): speed-accuracy tradeoff in attention switching task. Neuroscience Research. 109:48-53.
DOI
Vasquez, A., Malavera, M., Doruk, D., Morales-Quezada, L., Carvalho, S., leite, J., Fregni, F. (2016). Duration dependent effects of transcranial pulsed current stimulation (tPCS) indexed by electroencephalography. Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface. 19(7):679-688.
DOI
Deitos, A., Carvalho,F., Dussán-Sarria,J.A., Tarragó,M., de Souza, A., da Silva Torres,I.L., Carvalho, S., Leite,J., Fregni, F., Wolnei, C.(2016). Motor cortex excitability and BDNF levels in chronic musculoskeletal pain according to structural pathology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15;10:357. DOI
Gonçalves, O. F., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Fernandes-Gonçalves, A., Carracedo, A., Sampaio, A. (2016). Gray Matter Morphological Alteration in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Evidence for an Inhibitory Control and Emotional Regulation Disorder. Principles and Practice of Clinical Research Journal. DOI
Gonçalves, O.F., Soares, J.M., Carvalho, S., Leite, J., Ganho-Ávila, A.,Fernandes-Gonçalves, A., Pocinho, F., Carracedo, A., Sampaio, A (2017). Patterns of Default Mode Network Deactivation in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. DOI
Tubío Fungueiriño M, Fernández Prieto M, Carvalho S, Leite J, Carracedo Á, Gonçalves ÓF. Executive impairments in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A systematic review with emotional and non-emotional paradigms. Psicothema. 2020;32(1):24-32. doi:10.7334/psicothema2019.187 DOI
Ohrtman EA, Zaninotto AL, Carvalho S, et al. Longitudinal Clinical Trial Recruitment and Retention Challenges in the Burn Population: Lessons Learned From a Trial Examining a Novel Intervention for Chronic Neuropathic Symptoms. J Burn Care Res. 2019;40(6):792-795. doi:10.1093/jbcr/irz084 DOI
Teixeira-Santos AC, Moreira CS, Magalhães R, et al. Reviewing working memory training gains in healthy older adults: A meta-analytic review of transfer for cognitive outcomes. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;103:163-177. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.009
DOI
Carvalho S, Sampaio A, Mendes AJ, et al. Polarity Specific Effects of Cross-Hemispheric tDCS Coupled With Approach-Avoidance Training on Chocolate Craving. Front Pharmacol. 2019;9:1500. Published 2019 Jan 24. doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.01500 DOI
Gonçalves ÓF, Rêgo G, Conde T, et al. Mind Wandering and Task-Focused Attention: ERP Correlates. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):7608. Published 2018 May 15. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26028-w DOI
Santos VSDSD, Zortea M, Alves RL, et al. Cognitive effects of transcranial direct current stimulation combined with working memory training in fibromyalgia: a randomized clinical trial. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):12477. Published 2018 Aug 20. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30127-z DOI
Carvalho S, Leite J, Pinto CB, Morse LR, Zafonte R, Fregni F. Feasibility of remotely-supervised tDCS in a person with neuropathic pain due to spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med. 2018;41(5):547-548. doi:10.1080/10790268.2018.1451239 DOI
Carvalho S, French M, Thibaut A, et al. Median nerve stimulation induced motor learning in healthy adults: A study of timing of stimulation and type of learning [published online ahead of print, 2018 Jun 9]. Eur J Neurosci. 2018;10.1111/ejn.13990. doi:10.1111/ejn.13990 DOI
Gonçalves ÓF, Carvalho S, Mendes AJ, Leite J, Boggio PS. Neuromodulating Attention and Mind-Wandering Processes with a Single Session Real Time EEG. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2018;43(2):143-151. doi:10.1007/s10484-018-9394-4 DOI
Carvalho S, Leite J, Jones F, Morse LR, Zafonte R, Fregni F. Study adherence in a tDCS longitudinal clinical trial with people with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2018;56(5):502-508. doi:10.1038/s41393-017-0023-5 DOI
Leite J, Gonçalves ÓF, Pereira P, et al. The differential effects of unihemispheric and bihemispheric tDCS over the inferior frontal gyrus on proactive control. Neurosci Res. 2018;130:39-46. doi:10.1016/j.neures.2017.08.005 DOI
Thibaut A, Carvalho S, Morse LR, Zafonte R, Fregni F. Delayed pain decrease following M1 tDCS in spinal cord injury: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Neurosci Lett. 2017;658:19-26. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.024 DOI
2025/2026
Cognição Humana Aplicada
Master
Competências Científicas e Académicas
Bachelor
Psicologia das Emoções
Bachelor
Psicologia das Emoções
Bachelor
Psicologia das Emoções
Bachelor
Psicologia das Emoções
Bachelor
